How the world’s largest machine understands the operation of the basic components of (anti)matter.
Antimatter was as abundant as normal problems in the very early universe, shortly after the Big Bang. Antimatter is roughly the same as material and has the opposite fee. And when antimatter and matter meet, they annihilate each other and leave behind something other than energy. Such annihilation was something that almost every early universe experienced. What we can observe as planets, stars and galaxies is a small part of the remaining problems, with all antimatter disappearing. This small but very important asymmetry of material attitudes is the reason for the existence of the universe, as we know it. Nevertheless, a deeper understanding of this asymmetry avoids us, and it is one of the most basic questions that particle physicists (such as Professor Gersabeck) are trying to unravel.
For decades, particle physicists have studied the behavior of fundamental components of matter. They use accelerated particle collisions with machines of ever-growing sizes to produce particles of interest. Sometimes these can be of similar mass to the original particles that passed through the accelerator. However, following the equivalence of Einstein’s energy amounts expressed through E=MC², high-energy particle collisions can produce new large-scale particles, such as the Higgs Boson, discovered in the collision of CERN’s large hadron crider (LHC) in 2012. With a 27 km circumference, the LHC is the world’s largest machine, equipped with four major experiments surrounding the point where particles collide.
Flavor Physics
The basic components of the protons and neutrons that make up the nucleus are what are called quarks. They cannot exist as free particles, but can also form other bound objects. There are six different quarks called Flavors. The top quark is heavier than the tungsten atoms and disintegrates into lighter particles before forming bonded particles. The other three less common flavours, charm, oddity and beauty form particles that can be produced in collisions. When these quarks match bone cark bones, they form a great lab to study material and attitude asymmetry. This is at the heart of what is called flavor physics.
Professor Gersabeck’s group at the University of Freiburg in Germany is one of the latest additions to around 100 laboratories forming the LHCB collaboration. Together, they currently build and run the LHC-Beauty (LHCB) experiment, one of four major LHC laboratories. This dedicated flavor physics experiment is designed primarily to study particles, including charm and beauty quarks. It was first run from 2010 to 2018, and after extensive upgrades to most subsystems, it has established itself as a major player in the field of flavor physics. Professor Gelsabek moved to Freiburg in 2024, previously leading one of the largest LHCB teams at the University of Manchester, UK.
The LHCB experiment can already look back at a number of discoveries and groundbreaking measurement achievements, including some of the areas of material opposition. This includes the first time such asymmetry was observed in the attenuation of particles containing charm quarks. Professor Gersabeck is one of the longest-established LHCB members working on Charm Physics. This finding completed the set after previously observed in particles with strange quarks (first in 1964) and beauty quarks (first in 2001), followed by anti-material asymmetry observed.
Most of the asymmetry of material attitudes observed so far can be explained within mechanisms already assumed in 1973, but is an integral part of what is called the standard model of particle physics. However, these asymmetries are far less sufficient to explain the domination of problems in the universe. Hence, hunting is targeted at asymmetric new sources connected to new particles beyond the standard model.
Quantum effect
New particles, much heavier than all known particles, can affect the damping of standard model particles through the mechanical effects of quantum. Such effects can lead to changes in decay rate, changes in angular distribution of decay products, or asymmetry of new matter and attitudes. One observation of such an effect could be clear evidence of physics beyond standard models. However, it is a combination of several observations of new effects that can identify the nature of these new particles.
Historically, the physics of flavors have demonstrated this path to discovery several times through quantum effects. In the early 1960s, only UP, down, and strange quarks were known. The absence of a particular strange particle decay observation led to the fourth quark, the existence of attraction. Even before this was discovered, the discovery of material and attitude asymmetry predicted two more quarks, top and beauty. In a similar technique, flavor physicists have recently been trying to discover quantum imprints of new particles in measurements that are performed with much more accuracy than those possible in the last century.
The prediction of the upper quark has been around for more than 20 years since it was discovered. On the other hand, its mass was predicted to be much heavier than that of other quarks, contrary to expectations, based on the results of another flavor physics measurement. This measurement studied the antimatter mirror image and the rate at which neutral particles containing cosmetic quarks vibrate on the back. Such vibrational particles are the main laboratory for studying differences between matter and attitudes, and are the focus of the research of Professor Gelsabek and his group.
Charming puzzles
Charm’s attitude asymmetry discovered by the 2019 LHCB experiment cannot be explained in a simple way by standard model asymmetry. Some theoretical estimates show asymmetry about an order of magnitude less than that measured by the LHCB. However, so far, not all assumptions can be tested to the extent that they exclude explanations within the standard model.
The inexplicable situation of the origins of asymmetry of attractive attitudes has opened up a new field of research. The three roads promise to unravel this window into the world of antimatter. The first is a higher accuracy measurement of observed asymmetry. This includes both new measurements with LHCB and other experimental measurements. However, no experiments are expected to exceed the accuracy of LHCBs. A higher accuracy of the effect identifies the magnitude of the potential conflict with the standard model.
The second road is a measure of complementary damping of charm particles. Some of these are known to be primarily immune to effects beyond the standard model, which allows us to provide a benchmark to compare. Others have varying degrees of sensitivity to the effects of new particles due to quantum effects. Observations of these measurements facilitate more accurate identification of new particle types. This is the path Professor Gersabeck’s group has so far pursued for several years without any clear indication of new asymmetry.
The third road is a search for asymmetry related to the aforementioned mass-antimatter vibrations of neutral particles. The asymmetry expected within the standard model is often small, making non-zero measurements a physics discovery beyond the standard model. These measurements are also the long-standing focus of Professor Gersabeck’s group.
Ultimate accuracy is achieved through a statistical combination of measurements from all related experiments around the world. This combination is performed by the heavy flavor average group where Professor Gersabeck collaborates on the asymmetry section of the charm. The diagram below shows how current asymmetry has an effect with attenuation alone.
Real-time accuracy
Particle physics measurements are based on many observations of the same phenomenon, usually reducing statistical uncertainty at the square root of the number of observations. This means that you need to accumulate a larger data set. And to do this in finite time, it must accumulate at an ever-increasing rate of collisions. This is a formidable challenge for both detection systems and data collection and processing infrastructure.
Today, a 20m high precision system, the complete LHCB detector is read 40 million times per second for every collision at LHC. This requires that the sensitive element be able to perform the measurement and send a signal within 25 nanoseconds. With each collision, the LHCB detector must track hundreds of particles and identify interesting particle attenuation in the excess of the additional, largely unrelated particles. This corresponds to a data rate of 40 terabits per second that needs to be processed in real time, covering approximately 4% of the global internet bandwidth in 2022.
One of the most innovative parts of the LHCB experiment is the real-time data processing scheme. For the first time in particle physics experiments, the processing is completely software-based, providing a significant increase in flexibility and accuracy. In the first stage, an interesting signature is identified by a network of over 300 graphics processing units. Collisions of interest are stored in disk buffers, and the complete detector is calibrated, allowing subsequent selection to advance the best data quality. This calibration is currently responsible for Professor Gersabeck’s group. The final selection performed in the central processing unit produces an output of 80 Gigabits per second and is stored permanently for subsequent analysis.
Future opportunities
Further increases in collision rates for the mid-2030s are planned to facilitate changes in another step in accuracy. This so-called LHCB Upgrade 2 pushes the boundaries of what is technically viable to improve what is resolved with existing measurements and to open up new measurement opportunities. Professor Gersabeck’s group is actively involved in developing new solutions for the largest particle tracking detectors in LHCB experiments.
Previously, while in Manchester, he was responsible for building a relatively small detector module that currently surrounds the collision point, but Professor Gersabeck is currently working on a zechnology detector that covers an active area of nearly 100 square meters. His group is involved in sub-millimeter thin scintillation fibers (similar to the current detector module shown in the photo below the beam pipe) and parts used to exploit silicon pixel sensors.
In addition to allowing answering very basic questions, from sensors to data collection hardware, technology, and processing and analytical algorithms regularly drive accidental applications in many other areas. There are many knowledge exchange pathways, including areas such as medical imaging and security applications. Similarly, particle data experts often look at the skills used in big data challenges around the world.
As such, this field is a very versatile training field for a generation of highly skilled physicists. Working with a variety of engagement groups can also experience this breadth for students and early career researchers, promoting interests and strengths, whether they are in the development of new devices or in the latest applications of artificial intelligence opportunities. Such work can only be achieved through collaborative and collaborative efforts in interdisciplinary teams, from students to professors, engineers and engineers. Along the way, countless discoveries remain to understand the mystical quantum world of antimatter.
This article will also be featured in the 23rd edition of Quarterly Publication.
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